<CRACKING THE AP CHEMISTRY EXAM(2012)>: If you need to know it, it’s in this book. Cracking the AP Chemistry, 2012 Edition, includes:

  · 2 full-length practice tests with detailed explanations

  · Review of key equations, laws, and formulas

  · Helpful tables, charts, and diagrams

  · Detailed walk-through for how to write a high-scoring essay

  · Updated strategies which reflect the AP test scoring change

  · Accessible and engaging subject review of all topics, from atomic structure to thermodynamics

Introduction xi

 ORIENTATION   1

What Is the AP Program? 1

What Is the AP Chemistry Exam? 2

Cracking the Multiple-Choice Section 2

 · The Basics

 · Pacing

 · Guessing

 · About Calculators

Cracking the Free-Response Section 6

 · Part A---Problems

 · Cracking the Problems

 · Part B--Reactions and Essays

 · Cracking the Essays

About the Topics Covered on the Test

2  PREPARING FOR THE AP CHEMISTRY EXAM 13

The Months Before the Test 13

The Week Before the Test 15

The Day of the Test 15

3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE PERIODIC TABLE  17

The Periodic Table 18

Electrons 19

Quantum Numbers

The Aufbau Principle

  The Pauli Exclusion Principle

Quantum Numbers and the Periodic Table

Hund's Rule

Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism

Electrons and Energy

Names and Theories

Periodic Trends 26

 · Atomic Radius

 · Ionization Energy

 · Electron Affinity

 · Electronegativity

Chapter 3 Questions 29

Chapter 3 Answers and Explanations 34

4  BONDING 39

Coulomb's Law 39

Bonds 40

 · Ionic Bonds

 · Covalent Bonds

 · Lewis Dot Structures

 · Molecular Geometry

Bonds Between MoleculesmAttractive Forces in Solids and Liquids 48

 · Network (Covalent) Bonds

 · Metallic Bonds

 · Van der Waals Forces

 · Hydrogen Bonds

Chapter 4 Questions 50

Chapter 4 Answers and Explanations 54

5 STOICHIOMETRY AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS  63

Some Math 64

 · Significant Figures

 · Logarithms

Moles 65

Moles and Molecules

Moles and Grams

Moles and Gases

Moles and Solutions

Percent Composition

Empirical and Molecular Formulas

Chemical Equations 67

 · Balancing Chemical Equations

 · Chemical Equations and Calculations

Chapter 5 Questions 70

Chapter 5 Answers and Explanations 74

6 GASES 83

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) 83

Kinetic Molecular Theory 84

The Ideal Gas Equation 84

Dalton's Law 85

Graham's Law 86

Van der Waals Equation 86

Density 87

Chapter 6 Questions 88

Chapter 6 Answers and Explanations 94

7  PHASE CHANGES 101

The Phase Diagram 102

Phase Changes 102

 · Naming the Phase Changes

 · Heat of Fusion

 · Heat of Vaporization

The Phase Diagram for Water 103

The Heating Curve 104

Chapter 7 Questions 105

Chapter 7 Answers and Explanations 109

8 THERMODYNAMICS  1 13

The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 113

State Functions 114

Standard State Conditions 114

Enthalpy 114

 · Enthalpy Change, AH

 · Heat of Formation, AH·

 · Bond Energy

 · Hess's Law

 · Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

Entropy 117

 · Entropy Change, AS·

Gibbs Free Energy 118

 · Free Energy Change, A

 · AG, AH, and AS

 · AG and AG·

 · Standard Free Energy Change and the Equilibrium Constant

Energy Diagrams 120

 · Catalysts and Energy Diagrams

Chapter 8 Questions 123

Chapter 8 Answers and Explanations 129

9    SOLUTIONS  135

Concentration Measurements 135

 · Molarity

 · Molality

 · Mole Fraction

Solutes and Solvents 136

Colligative Properties 137

 · Boiling-Point Elevation

 · Freezing-Point Depression

 · Vapor Pressure Lowering (Raoult's Law)

 · Osmotic Pressure

Density 138

Solubility 139

 · Solubility Product (Kp)

 · The Common Ion Effect

 · Solubility Rules

 · Solubility of Gases

Chapter 9 Questions 142

Chapter 9 Answers and Explanations 147

10   EQUILIBRIUM  155

The Equilibrium Constant, K i55

K and Gases 157

T·e Reaction Quotient, Q 158

K and Multistep Processes 158

L·Ch6telier's Law 158

 · Concentration

 · Volume

 · Temperature

 · Pressure

Chapter 10 Questions 160

Chapter 10 Answers and Explanations 165

11  ACIDS AND BASES 171

Definitions 171

 · Arrhenius

 · Bronsted-Lowry

 · Lewis

pH 173

Weak Acids 173

 · Weak Acids and Calculations

Strong Acids 175

 · Strong Acids and Calculations

K 175

Acid and Base Salts 176

 · Acid-Base Salts and Calculations

Buffers 178

Polyprotic Acids and Amphoteric Substances 179

Anhydrides 179

Titration 180

Chapter 11 Questions 182

Chapter 11 Answers and Explanations 188

12  KINETICS  199

The Rate Law Using Initial Concentrations 199

The Rate Law Using Concentration and Time 201

 · First-Order Rate Laws

 · Second-Order Rate Laws

 · Zero-Order Rate Laws

Collision Theory 205

 · The Rate Constant and Temperature

Reaction Mechanisms 207

Catalysts 208

Kinetics and Equilibrium 208

Chapter 12 Questions 209

Chapter 12 Answers and Explanations 218

13  OXIDATION-REDUCTION AND ELECTROCHEMISTRY  225

Oxidation States 226

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 227

Reduction Potentials 228

Voltage and Spontaneity 230

Voltage and Equilibrium 230

Galvanic Cells 231

Electrolytic Cells 233

Chapter 13 Questions 235

Chapter 13 Answers and Explanations 241

14  NUCLEAR DECAY 247

Types of Nuclear Decay 247

 · Alpha Emission (4c·)

 · Beta Emission (·13)

 · Positron Emission (·13)

 · Electron Capture (·e)

 · Gamma Rays (0y)

Nuclear Stability 249

 · Half-Life

Mass Defect and Binding Energy 250

Chapter 14 Questions 251

Chapter 14 Answers and Explanations 255

15  LABORATORY  259

Recommended Experiments 260

Safety 261

Accuracy 261

Lab Procedures 261

 · Methods of Separation

 · Measuring Concentration

Identifying Chemicals in Solution 263

 · Precipitation

 · Conduction

 · Flame Tests

 · Acid-Base Reaction

 · Colored Solutions

  Laboratory Equipment 264

  Chapter 15 Questions 265

  Chapter 15 Answers and Explanations 269

16  ORGANIC CHEMISTRY  273

  Hydrocarbons 274

  · Alkanes

  · Alkenes

  · Alkynes

  · Hydrocarbon Rings

  Some Functional Groups 276

 Alcohols

 Organic Acids

 Halides

 Amines

 Aldehydes

 Ketones

 Ethers

  · Esters

  Isomers 279

  Organic Reactions 281

  Chapter 16 Questions 282

  Chapter 16 Answers and Explanations 286

17  DESCRIPTIVE CHEMISTRY 289

  The Basics 289

  Scoring 290

  Cracking the Descriptive Chemistry Section 291

18  THE PRINCETON REVIEW AP CHEMISTRY PRACTICE EXAM 1 303

19  ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS FOR PRACTICE EXAM 1 331

20  THE PRINCETON REVIEW AP CHEMISTRY PRACTICE EXAM 2 373

21  ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS FOR PRACTICE EXAM 2 401

Index 443

About the Author 447