在巨大的哲学家族总会有一些“不安分子”(black-sheep)频生事端、搅动倪墙，甚至触怒当政者。哲学流派之间也经常针锋相时、势同水火，但却从未真正分出胜负。这些对峙随着传奇一起代际相传，表现为一种发展的进程。旧论弃如敝屣，新凋登堂入室，堪管有时候只是风行一时而已。因此，正像一个人哲所说的，哲学史是观念的历险。这本书就是试图勾勒出这出大戏的线索。本书为全英文版。

哲学史在很多方而就像史诗式的小说。可敬的先哲们为增慧后学，经过痛苦的思想砥砺，缔造了哲学传统。在这巨大的哲学家族总会有一些“不安分子”(black—sheep)频生事端、搅动倪墙，甚至触怒当政者。哲学流派之间也经常针锋相时、势同水火，但却从未真正分出胜负。这些对峙随着传奇一起代际相传，表现为一种发展的进程。旧论弃如敝屣，新凋登堂入室，堪管有时候只是风行一时而已。

因此，正像一个人哲所说的，哲学史是观念的历险。这本书就是试图勾勒出这出大戏的线索。

Preface 1

Part One

ANCIENT GREEK PHILOSOPHY

Chaper I Socrates' Predecessors 5

What Is Permanent in Existence? 7

  Thales 7

  Anaximander 8

  Anaximenes 10

The Mathematical Basis of All Things 11

  Pythagoras 11

Attempts to Explain Change 15

  Heraclitus 15

  Parmenides 18

  Zeno 19

  Empedocles 22

  Anaxagoras 24

The Atomists 25

  Atoms and the Void 26

  Theory of Knowledge and Ethics 28

Chapter 2 The Sophists and Socrates 29

The Sophists 31

  Protagoras 32

  Gorgias 33

  Thrasymachus 34

Socrates 34

  Socrates' Life 35

  Socrates as a Philosopher 37

  Socrates' Theory of Knowledge: Intellectual Midwifery 39

  Socrates' Moral Thought 42

  Socrates' Trial and Death 43

Chapter 3 Plato 46

Plato's Life 46

Theory of Knowledge 49

  The Cave 49

  The Divided Line 51

  Theory of Forms 55

Moral Philosophy 59

  The Concept of the Soul 59

  The Cause of Evil: Ignorance or Forgetfulness 61

  Recovering Lost Morality 62

  Virtue as Fulfillment of Function 63

Political Philosophy 64

  The State as a Giant Person 65

  The Philosopher-King 66

  The Virtues in the State 67

  The Decline of the Ideal State 69 

View of the Cosmos 71

Chapter 4 Aristotle 75

Aristotle's Life 75

Logic 78

  The Categories and the Starting Point of Reasoning 78

  The Syllogism 79

Metaphysics 81

  The Problem of Metaphysics Defined 81

  Substance as the Primary Essence of Things 82

  Matter and Form 83

  The Process of Change: The Four Causes 84

  Potentiality and Actuality 85

  The Unmoved Mover 86

The Place of Humans: Physics, Biology, and Psychology 87

  Physics 87

  Biology 88

  Psychology 88

Ethics 90

  Types of "Ends" 90

  The Function of Human Beings 91

  Happiness as the End 92

  Virtue as the Golden Mean 93

  Deliberation and Choice 94

  Contemplation 94

Politics 95

  Types of States 96

  Differences and Inequalities 96

  Good Government and Revolution 97

Philosophy of Art 98

Part Two

HELLENISTIC AND MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY

Chapter 5 Classical Philosophy after Aristotle 103

Epicureanism 104

  Physics and Ethics 105

  God and Death 106

  The Pleasure Principle 106

  Individual Pleasure versus Social Duty 108

Stoicism 108

  Wisdom and Control versus Pleasure 108

  Stoic Theory of Knowledge 110

  Matter as the Basis of All Reality 111

  Good in Everything 111

  Fate and Providence 112

  Human Nature 112

  Ethics and the Human Drama 112

  The Problem of Freedom 113

  Cosmopolitanism and Justice 114

Skepticism 114

  The Senses Are Deceptive 117

  More Rules Raise Doubts 117

  Morality Possible without Intellectual Certainty 118

Plotinus 119

  God as the One 120

  The Metaphor of Emanation 121

  Salvation 124

Chapter 6 Augustine 125

Augustine's Life 125

Human Knowledge 128

  Overcoming Skepticism 128

  Knowledge and Sensation 128

  The Theory of Illumination 131

God 132

The Created World 134

  Creation from Nothing 134

  The Seminal Principles 135

Moral Philosophy 135

  The Role of Love 136

  Free Will as the Cause of Evil 138

Justice 139

The History and the Two Cities 140

  History 140

Chapter 7 Philosophy in the Early Middle Ages 142

Boethius 142

  The Consolation of Philosophy 144

  The Problem of Universals 144

Pseudo-Dionysius 146

John Scotus Erigena 148

  The Division of Nature 148

New Solutions to the Problem of Universals 150

  Odo and Guillaume: Exaggerated Realism 150

  Roscellinus: Nominalism 151

  Abelard: Conceptualism or Moderate Realism 152

Anselm' s Ontological Argument 153

  Anselm's Realism 153

  Ontological Argument 155

  Gaunilon's Rebuttal 156

  Anselm's Reply to Gaunilon 156

Faith and Reason in Muslim and Jewish Thought 156

  Avicenna 157

  Averro6s 159

  Moses Maimonides 160

Chapter 8 Aquinas and his Late Medieval Successors 163

Aquinas's Life 164

  Bonaventura and the University of Paris 166

Philosophy and Theology 167

  Faith and Reason 168

Proofs of God's Existence 169

  Proofs from Motion, Efficient Cause, and Necessary Being 169

  Proofs from Perfection and Order 170

  Assessment of the Proofs 171

Knowledge of God's Nature 171

  The Negative Way (Via Negativa) 172

  Knowledge by Analogy 172

Creation 173

  Is the Created Order Eternal? 173

  Creation out of Nothing 174

  Is This the Best Possible World? 174

  Evil as Privation 174

  The Range of Created Being: The Chain of Being 175

Morality and Natural Law 176

  Natural Law 177

The State 180

Human Nature and Knowledge 182

  Human Nature 182

  Knowledge 182

Scotus, Ockham, and Eckhart 183

  Voluntarism 183

  Nominalism 184

  Mysticism 186

Part Three

EARLY MODERN PHILOSOPHY

Chapter 9 Philosophy during the Renaissance 191

The Closing of the Middle Ages 191

Humanism and the Italian Renaissance 193

  Pico 193

  Machiavelli 194

The Reformation 196

  Luther 196

  Erasmus 198

Skepticism and Faith 200

  Montaigne 200

  Pascal 203

The Scientific Revolution 204

  New Discoveries and New Methods 205

  Modem Atomism 206

Francis Bacon 208

  Distempers of Learning 209

  Idols of the Mind 210

  Inductive Method 211

Thomas Hobbes 212

  Influence of Geometry upon Hobbes's Thought 212

  Bodies in Motion: The Object of Thought 213

  Mechanical View of Human Thought 215

  Political Philosophy and Morality 216

  The State of Nature 217

  Obligation in the State of Nature 218

  The Social Contract 219

  Civil Law versus Natural Law 220

Chapter 10 Rationalism on the Continent 222

Descartes 223

  Life 223

  Descartes' Method 226

  Methodic Doubt 229

  The Existence of God and External Things 230

  Mind and Body 232

Spinoza 234

  Method 234

  God: Substance and Attribute 236

  The World as Modes of God's Attributes 237

  Knowledge, Mind, and Body 238

  Ethics 240

Leibniz 241

  Substance 242

  God's Existence 244         

  Knowledge and Nature 246

Chapter 11 Empiricism in Britain 250

Locke 251

  Locke's Theory of Knowledge 252

  Locke's Moral and Political Theory 257

Berkeley 260

Hume 267

  Hume's Theory of Knowledge 268

  What Exists External to Us? 271

  Ethics 273

Part Four

LATE MODERN AND 19TM CENTURY PHILOSOPHY

Chapter 12 Kant 281

The Shaping of Kant's Problem 282

Kant's Critical Philosophy and His Copernican Revolution 284

  The Way of Critical Philosophy 284

  The Nature of a priori Knowledge 285

  The Synthetic A Priori 286

  Kant's Copernican Revolution 288

The Structure of Rational Thought 289

  The Categories of Thought and the Forms of Intuition 289

  The Self and the Unity of Experience 290

  Phenomenal and Noumenal Reality 291

  Transcendental Ideas of Pure Reason as Regulative Concepts 291

  The Antinomies and the Limits of Reason 292

  Proofs of God's Existence 294

Practical Reason 295

  The Basis of Moral Knowledge 296

  Morality and Rationality 297

  "Good" Defined as the Good Will 297     

  The Categorical Imperative 298     

  The Moral Postulates 300

Aesthetics: The Beautiful 301

  The Beautiful as Independent Pleasant Satisfaction 302

  The Beautiful as an Object of Universal Delight 303

  Finality versus Purpose in the Beautiful Object 303

  Necessity, Common Sense, and the Beautiful 304

Chapter13 German Idealism 306

Kant's Impact on German Thought 306

Hegel 308

  Life 308

  Absolute Mind 310

  The Nature of Reality 311

  Ethics and Politics 316

  Absolute Spirit 320

Schopenhauer 321

  Schopenhauer's Life 321

  The Principle of Sufficient Reason 324

  The World as Will and Idea 326

  The Grotmd of Pessimism 328

  Is There Any Escape from the "Will"? 330

Chapter 14 Utilitarianism and Positivism 332

Bentham 332

  Bentham's Life 334

  The Principle of Utility 335

  Law and Punishment 337

  Bentham's Radicalism 339

John Stuart Mill 340

  Mill's Version of Utilitarianism 342

  Liberty 346

Comte 347

  Comte's Life and Times 347

  Positivism Defined 350

  The Law of the Three Stages 351

  Comte's Sociology and "Religion of Humanity" 352

Chapter 15 Kierkegaard, Marx, and Nietzsche  356

Kierkegaard 357

  Human Existence 358

  Truth as Subjectivity 359

  The Aesthetic Stage 360

  The Ethical Stage 361

  The Religious Stage 362

Marx 363

  Marx's Life and Influences 364

  The Epochs of History: Marx's Dialectic 367

  The Substructure: The Material Order 371

  The Alienation of Labor 374

  The Superstructure: The Origin and Role of Ideas 376

Nietzsche 378

  Nietzsche's Life 378

  "God is Dead" 380

  The Apolonian versus Dionysian 381

  Master Morality versus Slave Morality 383

  The Will to Power 385

  Revaluation of All Morals 386

  The Superperson 387

Part Five

20TH CENTURY AND CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY

Chapter 16 Pragmatism and Process Philosophy 393

Pragmatism 393

Peirce 394

  A Theory of Meaning 395

  The Role of Belief 395

  The Elements of Method 396

James 397

  Pragmatism as a Method 398

  The Pragmatic Theory of Truth 398

  Free Will 400

  The Will to Believe 401

Dewey 403

  The Spectator versus Experience 403

  Habit, Intelligence, and Learning 405

  Value in a World of Fact 406

Process Philosophy 407

Bergson 408

  Going Around versus Entering Into 409

  The Scientific Way of Analysis 411

  The Metaphysical Way of Intuition 412

  The Process of Duration 413

  Evolution and the Vital Impulse 414

  Morality and Religion 415

Whitehead 416

  The Error of Simple Location 417

   Self-Consciousness 418

  Prehension 419

  Eternal Objects 420

Chapter 17 Analytic Philosophy 422

Bertrand Russell 423

  Logical Atomism 424

  Problems with Logical Atomism 426

Logical Positivism 426

  The Principle of Verification 427

  Rudolph Carnap 428

  Problems with Logical Positivism 432

  Quine's Critique of Empiricism 433

Ludwig Wittgenstein 434

  Wittgenstein's Road to Philosophy 434

  The New Wittgenstein 437

  Language Games and Following Rules 438

  Clarifying Metaphysical Language 439

John Austin 440

  The Notion of "Excuses" 441

  The Benefits of Ordinary Language 442

Chapter 18 Phenomenology and Existentialism 445

Edmund Husserl 445

  Hussefl's Life and Influence 445

  The Crisis of European Science 447

  Descartes and Intentionality 449

  Phenomena and Phenomenological Bracketting 451

  The Life-World 452

Martin Heidegger 453

  Heidegger's Life 453

  Dasein as Being-in-the-World 454

  Dasein as Concern 455

Religious Existentialism 456

  Karl Jaspers 456

  Gabriel Marcel 458

Jean-Paul Sartre 459

  Sartre's Life 459

  Existence Precedes Essence 462

  Freedom and Responsibility 464

  Nothingness and Bad Faith 465

  Human Consciousness 466

  Marxism and Freedom Revisited 468

Maurice Merleau-Ponty 469

   Merleau-Ponty's Life 469

   The Primacy of Perception 471

   The Relativity of Knowledge 472

   Perception and Politics 473

Chapter19 Recent Philosophy 475

The Mind-Body Problem 476

  Ryle and the Gl~ost in the Machine 476

  Identity Theory and Functionalism 480

  Searle and the Chinese Room Argument 481

Rorty 483

  Influence of Pragmatism 485

  The Contingency of Language 486

  The Contingency of Selfhood 487

  The Contingency of Community 489

Virtue Theory Revisited 490

  Elizabeth Anscombe 490

  Nel Noddings 492

Continental Philosophy 494

  Structuralism 494

  Post-Structuralism 496

  Postmodemism 497

Glossary G-1

A Selected Bibliography B-1

Index I-1