本书是一本面向计算机系本科生的编译器教材。主要介绍了编译器历史和概述、词法分析（扫描）、语法分析（包括自顶向下和自底向上的分析）、语法制导翻译、符号表和声明处理、语义分析、中间表示形式、虚拟机上的代码生成、运行时支持、目标代码生成和程序优化等内容。

本书是一本面向计算机系本科生的编译器教材。作者在三所美国大学拥有长达25年的编译器教学经验，在本书中对编译器构造的基本知识与关键技术进行了全新的讲解。本书的主要内容包括：编译器历史和概述、词法分析（扫描）、语法分析（包括自顶向下和自底向上的分析）、语法制导翻译、符号表和声明处理、语义分析、中间表示形式、虚拟机上的代码生成、运行时支持、目标代码生成和程序优化等。

本书提供了详尽清晰的算法，主推在实践中学习编译器构造的相关技术，同时提供了配合教材使用的教学网站、参考资料以及源码下载。不仅可以作为计算机专业本科生或研究生的参考教材，同时也适合相关领域的软件工程师、系统分析师等作为参考资料。

1 Introduction 1

　1.1 History of Compilation 2

　1.2 What Compilers Do 4

　1.2.1 Machine CodeGenerated byCompilers 4

　1.2.2 TargetCode Formats 7

　1.3 Interpreters 9

　1.4 Syntax and Semantics 10

　1.4.1 Static Semantics 11

　1.4.2 Runtime Semantics 12

　1.5 Organization of aCompiler 14

　1.5.1 TheScanner 16

　1.5.2 TheParser 16

　1.5.3 TheTypeChecker(Semantic Analysis) 17

　1.5.4 Translator(Program Synthesis) 17

　1.5.5 Symbol Tables 18

　1.5.6 TheOptimizer 18

　1.5.7 TheCode Generator 19

　1.5.8 Compiler Writing Tools 19

　1.6 Programming Language and Compiler Design 20

　1.7 Computer Architecture and Compiler Design 21

　1.8 Compiler DesignConsiderations 22

　1.8.1 Debugging(Development)Compilers 22

　1.8.2 Optimizing Compilers 23

　1.8.3 Retargetable Compilers 23

　1.9 Integrated DevelopmentEnvironments 24

　Exercises 26

2 A Simple Compiler 31

　2.1 AnInformalDe.nition of the acLanguage 32

　2.2 FormalDe.nition of ac 33

　2.2.1 SyntaxSpeci.cation 33

　2.2.2 TokenSpeci.cation 36

　2.3 Phasesof aSimpleCompiler 37

　2.4 Scanning 38

　2.5 Parsing 39

　2.5.1 Predicting aParsingProcedure 41

　2.5.2 Implementing theProduction 43

　2.6 AbstractSyntaxTrees 45

　2.7 Semantic Analysis 46

　2.7.1 Symbol Tables 47

　2.7.2 TypeChecking 48

　2.8 Code Generation 51

　Exercises 54

3 Scanning—Theory and Practice 57

　3.1 Overviewof aScanner 58

　3.2 Regular Expressions 60

　3.3 Examples 62

　3.4 Finite Automata and Scanners 64

　3.4.1 Deterministic Finite Automata 65

　3.5 The LexScannerGenerator 69

　3.5.1 De.ning Tokensin Lex 70

　3.5.2 TheCharacterClass 71

　3.5.3 UsingRegular Expressions to De.neTokens 73

　3.5.4 CharacterProcessingUsingLex 76

　3.6 OtherScannerGenerators 77

　3.7 PracticalConsiderations ofBuildingScanners 79

　3.7.1 ProcessingIdenti.ers andLiterals 79

　3.7.2 UsingCompiler Directives and Listing SourceLines 83

　3.7.3 Terminating theScanner 85

　3.7.4 Multicharacter Lookahead 86

　3.7.5 PerformanceConsiderations 87

　3.7.6 LexicalErrorRecovery 89

　3.8 Regular Expressions and Finite Automata 92

　3.8.1 Transforming aRegularExpressioninto anNFA 93

　3.8.2 Creating theDFA 94

　3.8.3 Optimizing Finite Automata 97

　3.8.4 Translating Finite Automata into Regular Expressions 100

　3.9 Summary 103 Exercises 106

4 Grammars and Parsing 113

　4.1 Context-FreeGrammars 114

　4.1.1 Leftmost Derivations 116

　4.1.2 Rightmost Derivations 116

　4.1.3 ParseTrees 117

　4.1.4 OtherTypes ofGrammars 118

　4.2 Properties of CFGs 120

　4.2.1 Reduced Grammars 120

　4.2.2 Ambiguity 121

　4.2.3 FaultyLanguage De.nition 122

　4.3 TransformingExtended Grammars 122

　4.4 Parsers and Recognizers 123

　4.5 GrammarAnalysisAlgorithms 127

　4.5.1 GrammarRepresentation 127

　4.5.2 Deriving theEmpty String 128

　4.5.3 FirstSets 130

　4.5.4 FollowSets 134

　Exercises 138

5 Top-Down Parsing 143

　5.1 Overview 144

　5.2 LL(k)Grammars 145

　5.3 Recursive-DescentLL(1)Parsers 149

　5.4 Table-Driven LL(1)Parsers 150

　5.5 Obtaining LL(1)Grammars 154

　5.5.1 Common Pre.xes 156

　5.5.2 Left Recursion 157

　5.6 A Non-LL(1)Language 159

　5.7 Properties ofLL(1)Parsers 161

　5.8 ParseTable Representation 163

　5.8.1 Compaction 164

　5.8.2 Compression 165

　5.9 SyntacticErrorRecovery andRepair 168

　5.9.1 ErrorRecovery 169

　5.9.2 ErrorRepair 169

　5.9.3 ErrorDetectionin LL(1)Parsers 171

　5.9.4 ErrorRecoveryinLL(1)Parsers 171

　Exercises 173

6 Bottom-Up Parsing 179

　6.1 Overview 180

　6.2 Shift-Reduce Parsers 181

　6.2.1 LRParsers and RightmostDerivations 182

　6.2.2 LRParsing asKnitting 182

　6.2.3 LRParsing Engine 184

　6.2.4 TheLRParseTable 185

　6.2.5 LR(k)Parsing 187

　6.3 LR(0)Table Construction 191

　6.4 Con.ictDiagnosis 197

　6.4.1 Ambiguous Grammars 199

　6.4.2 Grammars that are not LR(k) 202

　6.5 Con.ictResolution andTableConstruction 204

　6.5.1 SLR(k)Table Construction 204

　6.5.2 LALR(k)Table Construction 209

　6.5.3 LALR Propagation Graph 211

　6.5.4 LR(k)Table Construction 219 Exercises 224

7 Syntax-Directed Translation 235

　7.1 Overview 235

　7.1.1 SemanticActions andValues 236

　7.1.2 Synthesized and Inherited Attributes 237

　7.2 Bottom-Up Syntax-DirectedTranslation 239

　7.2.1 Example 239

　7.2.2 Rule Cloning 243

　7.2.3 ForcingSemantic Actions 244

　7.2.4 AggressiveGrammarRestructuring 246

　7.3 Top-DownSyntax-DirectedTranslation 247

　7.4 AbstractSyntaxTrees 250

　7.4.1 Concrete and AbstractTrees 250

　7.4.2 An Ef.cientAST DataStructure 251

　7.4.3 InfrastructureforCreating ASTs 252

　7.5 ASTDesign andConstruction 254

　7.5.1 Design 256

　7.5.2 Construction 258

　7.6 ASTStructuresforLeft andRightValues 261

　7.7 Design PatternsforASTs 264

　7.7.1 Node ClassHierarchy 264

　7.7.2 Visitor Pattern 265

　7.7.3 Re.ectiveVisitorPattern 268 Exercises 272

8 Symbol Tables and Declaration Processing 279

　8.1 Constructing aSymbolTable 280

　8.1.1 Static Scoping 282

　8.1.2 A Symbol Table Interface 282

　8.2 Block-StructuredLanguages andScopes 284

　8.2.1 Handling Scopes 284

　8.2.2 OneSymbolTable orMany? 285

　8.3 Basic Implementation Techniques 286

　8.3.1 Entering andFindingNames 286

　8.3.2 TheName Space 289

　8.3.3 An Ef.cientSymbol Table Implementation 290

　8.4 Advanced Features 293

　8.4.1 Records and Typenames 294

　8.4.2 Overloading andTypeHierarchies 294

　8.4.3 Implicit Declarations 296

　8.4.4 Export andImportDirectives 296

　8.4.5 Altered SearchRules 297

　8.5 Declaration ProcessingFundamentals 298

　8.5.1 Attributes in the Symbol Table 298

　8.5.2 TypeDescriptorStructures 299

　8.5.3 TypeCheckingUsing anAbstractSyntaxTree 300

　8.6 Variable andTypeDeclarations 303

　8.6.1 Simple Variable Declarations 303

　8.6.2 Handling TypeNames 304

　8.6.3 TypeDeclarations 305

　8.6.4 Variable DeclarationsRevisited 308

　8.6.5 Static ArrayTypes 311

　8.6.6 Struct and RecordTypes 312

　8.6.7 Enumeration Types 313

　8.7 Class and Method Declarations 316

　8.7.1 ProcessingClassDeclarations 317

　8.7.2 ProcessingMethod Declarations 321

　8.8 An Introduction toTypeChecking 323

　8.8.1 Simple Identi.ers and Literals 327

　8.8.2 Assignment Statements 328

　8.8.3 Checking Expressions 328

　8.8.4 Checking ComplexNames 329

　8.9 Summary 334 Exercises 336

9 Semantic Analysis 343

　9.1 Semantic AnalysisforControl Structures 343

　9.1.1 Reachability and Termination Analysis 345

　9.1.2 IfStatements 348

　9.1.3 While, Do, andRepeat Loops 350

　9.1.4 ForLoops 353

　9.1.5 Break,Continue, Return, andGoto Statements 356

　9.1.6 Switch andCaseStatements 364

　9.1.7 Exception Handling 369

　9.2 Semantic Analysis ofCalls 376

　9.3 Summary 384 Exercises 385

10 Intermediate Representations 391

　10.1 Overview 392

　10.1.1 Examples 393

　10.1.2 TheMiddle-End 395

　10.2 Java Virtual Machine 397

　10.2.1 Introduction andDesignPrinciples 398

　10.2.2 Contents of aClassFile 399

　10.2.3 JVMInstructions 401

　10.3 Static Single Assignment Form 410

　10.3.1 Renaming and φ-functions 411

　Exercises 414

11 Code Generation for a Virtual Machine 417

　11.1 Visitors forCode Generation 418

　11.2 Class and Method Declarations 420

　11.2.1 ClassDeclarations 422

　11.2.2 Method Declarations 424

　11.3 The MethodBodyVisitor 425

　11.3.1 Constants 425

　11.3.2 References to LocalStorage 426

　11.3.3 Static References 427

　11.3.4 Expressions 427

　11.3.5 Assignment 429

　11.3.6 Method Calls 430

　11.3.7 Field References 432

　11.3.8 ArrayReferences 433

　11.3.9 Conditional Execution 435 11.3.10Loops 436

　11.4 The LHSVisitor 437

　11.4.1 Local References 437

　11.4.2 Static References 438

　11.4.3 Field References 439

　11.4.4 ArrayReferences 439 Exercises 441

12 Runtime Support 445

　12.1 Static Allocation 446

　12.2 Stack Allocation 447

　12.2.1 Field AccessinClasses andStructs 449

　12.2.2 AccessingFrames at Runtime 450

　12.2.3 Handling Classes and Objects 451

　12.2.4 Handling Multiple Scopes 453

　12.2.5 Block-LevelAllocation 455

　12.2.6 MoreAbout Frames 457

　12.3 Arrays 460

　12.3.1 Static One-Dimensional Arrays 460

　12.3.2 Multidimensional Arrays 465

　12.4 Heap Management 468

　12.4.1 Allocation Mechanisms 468

　12.4.2 Deallocation Mechanisms 471

　12.4.3 Automatic GarbageCollection 472

　12.5 Region-Based MemoryManagement 479 Exercises 482

13 Target Code Generation 489

　13.1 Translating Bytecodes 490

　13.1.1 Allocating memory addresses 493

　13.1.2 Allocating Arrays andObjects 493

　13.1.3 Method Calls 496

　13.1.4 Example ofBytecodeTranslation 498

　13.2 Translating ExpressionTrees 501

　13.3 Register Allocation 505

　13.3.1 On-the-FlyRegister Allocation 506

　13.3.2 RegisterAllocation Using GraphColoring 508

　13.3.3 Priority-Based RegisterAllocation 516

　13.3.4 Interprocedural RegisterAllocation 517

　13.4 Code Scheduling 519

　13.4.1 ImprovingCode Scheduling 523

　13.4.2 Global andDynamicCodeScheduling 524

　13.5 Automatic Instruction Selection 526

　13.5.1 InstructionSelection UsingBURS 529

　13.5.2 InstructionSelection UsingTwig 531

　13.5.3 OtherApproaches 532

　13.6 Peephole Optimization 532

　13.6.1 Levels ofPeepholeOptimization 533

　13.6.2 AutomaticGeneration ofPeepholeOptimizers 536

　Exercises 538

14 Program Optimization 547

　14.1 Overview 548

　14.1.1 WhyOptimize? 549

　14.2 Control FlowAnalysis 555

　14.2.1 Control FlowGraphs 556

　14.2.2 Program andControlFlowStructure 559

　14.2.3 DirectProcedureCall Graphs 560

　14.2.4 Depth-FirstSpanning Tree 560

　14.2.5 Dominance 565

　14.2.6 Simple Dominance Algorithm 567

　14.2.7 FastDominanceAlgorithm 571

　14.2.8 Dominance Frontiers 581

　14.2.9 Intervals 585

　14.3 Introduction to DataFlowAnalysis 598

　14.3.1 Available Expressions 598

　14.3.2 LiveVariables 601

　14.4 Data FlowFrameworks 604

　14.4.1 Data FlowEvaluation Graph 604

　14.4.2 Meet Lattice 606

　14.4.3 TransferFunctions 608

　14.5 Evaluation 611

　14.5.1 Iteration 611

　14.5.2 Initialization 615

　14.5.3 Termination andRapidFrameworks 616

　14.5.4 Distributive Frameworks 620

　14.6 Constant Propagation 623

　14.7 SSA Form 627

　14.7.1 Placing φ-Functions 629

　14.7.2 Renaming 631

Exercises 636

Bibliography 651

Abbreviations 661

Pseudocode Guide 663

Index 667